Three-dimensional printing of scaffolds for facial reconstruction

Abstract Three-dimensional (3D) printing of scaffolds for tissue engineering applications has grown substantially in the past two decades. Unlike conventional autografts and allografts, 3D-printed can satisfy growing need personalized bony reconstruction following massive craniofacial bone loss. Employing layer-by-layer manufacturing techniques, it is possible to produce patient-specific structures rebuild complicated geometries esthetic purposes restore mechanical respiratory functions. Here, we summarize trends current state-of-the-art studies 3D-printing technologies reconstruction. We describe design development scaffolds, including material choices, scaffold fabrication workflows, mechanical, structural, biological considerations impacting application function. Finally, remaining hurdles opportunities growth transition widespread clinical adoption this technology. Graphical abstract